Al-Qa'im

Early life

Al-Qa'im was born on 8 November 1001. He was the son of Abbasid caliph al-Qadir (r. 991–1031) and his concubine named Qatr al-Nada (died 1060), an Armenian or Greek, also known as Alam.

His father, Al-Qadir had publicly proclaimed his just nine-year-old son Muhammad (elder brother of Al-Qa'im) as heir apparent, with the title of al-Ghalib Bi'llah, in 1001. However, Muhammad died before his father and never ascended to the throne.

In 1030, al-Qadir named his son Abu Ja'far, the future Al-Qa'im, as his heir, a decision taken completely independently of the Buyid emirs. Al-Qadir died after an illness on 29 November 1031. Initially he was buried in the caliphal palace, but in the next year he was ceremonially moved to al-Rusafa. Al-Qa'im, meanwhile, received "the usual oath of allegiance" on 12 December 1031.

Al-Qaim had other siblings, a brother name Abu'l-Qasim ibn al-Qadir and a sister named Fatima bint al-Qadir who died in 1056, during his reign.

Reign

Early reign

During the first half of al-Qa'im's long reign, hardly a day passed in the capital without turmoil. Frequently the city was left without a ruler; the Buwayhid Emir was often forced to flee the capital.

At this point, the caliph had "very limited personal resources at his command", but he had recovered a bit of power from earlier periods and was able to arbitrate between the Buyid emirs Jalal al-Dawla and Abu Kalijar. In 1032, al-Qa'im sent the jurist al-Mawardi to meet with Abu Kalijar in secret; he was to refuse to grant him any title but "Malik al-Dawla".

During his reign and of the previous caliphs' period, literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids. The famous philosopher al-Farabi died in 950; al-Mutanabbi, acknowledged in the East as the greatest of Arabic poets, and himself an Arab, in 965; and the Persian Abu Ali Husayn ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna) in 1037.

In 1043, Lahore's Ghaznavid governor Faqih Salti marched against Abul Fateh Daud's son. The Ismaili forced withdrew to Mansura. Multan was surrendered to the Ghaznavids and the khutbah was now read for the Abbasid Caliphate than the rival Fatimids.

Defeat of Arslan al-Basasiri and Recognition of Tughril as Sultan by al-Qa'im

The new Seljuk ruler Tughril overran Syria and Armenia. He then cast an eye upon Baghdad. It was at a moment when the city was in the last agony of violence and fanaticism. Toghrül, under cover of intended pilgrimage to Mecca, entered Iraq with a heavy force, and assuring the Caliph of pacific views and subservience to his authority, begged permission to visit the capital. The Turks and Buwayhids were unfavorable, but Tughril was acknowledged as Sultan by the Caliph in the public prayers. A few days after, Tughril himself — having sworn to be true not only to the Caliph, but also to the Buwayhid amir, al-Malik al-Rahim, made his entry into the capital, where he was well received both by chiefs and people.

The Turkic general Arslan al-Basasiri revolted in 1058 and successfully took Baghdad while Tughril was occupied with his brother's revolt in Iran. Al-Qa'im originally stayed in Baghdad during these events but was later exiled to Anah on al-Basasiri's orders. For about a year, al-Basasiri kept al-Qa'im as his hostage in Anah, as a bargaining chip in negotiations with Tughril. Tughril ended up securing al-Qa'im's freedom by going directly to the amir guarding him, bypassing negotiations with al-Basasiri altogether.

After al-Basasiri died and his revolt came to an end, the Seljuks were left as the single dominant power over al-Qa'im's caliphate. They were similar to the Buyids in this regard, although the Sunni Seljuks were more closely aligned with al-Qa'im in religious matters. Sectarian conflict was a prominent issue during this part of al-Qa'im's reign. A notable incident concerned the opening of the Nizamiyya of Baghdad, a madrasa affiliated with the Shafi'i legal school, in 1067; its opening inflamed tensions with the Hanbalis. Al-Qa'im was reluctant to act without first consulting with the Seljuk sultan and was ultimately unable to control the situation.

While the Seljuk dynasty's influence grew, Chaghri Beg married his daughter, Khadija Arslan, to Al-Qa'im in 1056.

Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril recognized only the spiritual authority of the caliph Al-Qa'im while limiting his political influence over the territories Tughril controlled, especially in light of his significant accomplishments: ending the Buyid state’s dominance over Arab Iraq, suppressing local rebellions and bandit groups, and resisting the growing influence of the Shia Fatimids in the region. In accordance with the political doctrine followed by Tughril and his advisers, the caliph’s spiritual status was acknowledged, but his interference in matters of governance was not tolerated; all executive and administrative power was to remain within the sultan’s domain. From this perspective, their policy aimed at diminishing and restricting the temporal authority of the caliph. For example, determining the caliph’s material entitlements and preventing him from exercising control over the Muslim public treasury (bayt al-mal) were among the measures taken in this framework.

Reign and relations with Tughril

The significance of relations with the Abbasid caliphate was evident to the Seljuks even before their full integration into the Islamic world. Their early actions demonstrate the value they placed on this relationship. For instance, in a letter addressed to the governor of Syria, the Seljuk commanders referred to themselves as “slaves of the Commander of the Faithful.” After the conquest of Nishapur, when the caliph requested that the city not be plundered, Tughril paid forty thousand dinars to his brother Chaghri Beg to prevent the looting and thus secured the caliph’s satisfaction. Following their victory at the Battle of Dandanaqan, the Seljuks sent a letter to the caliph explaining their situation and seeking formal recognition of their authority—clearly indicating their desire for legitimacy from the caliph. In 1055, with Tughril’s entry into Baghdad and the end of Buyid rule, the Seljuks emerged as the principal political force at the center of the Abbasid caliphate. However, unlike their Shi‘i Buyid predecessors, they did not overtly alter the framework of relations with the caliphate. Though some differences can be observed under the reign of later rulers, the need for the caliph’s spiritual legitimacy remained. As with earlier regimes, the Seljuks ensured the legality of their rule through the caliph’s formal approval and the delivery of the Friday sermon (khutba) in their names. Due to his spiritual prestige and influence over the Sunni population, the caliph was regarded as the final arbiter of legitimacy—a status that even the Shi‘i Buyids had to acknowledge. The Seljuks adhered to this principle as well. For example, the way Tughril approached the caliph and conducted their relations closely resembled the behavior of the Buyid ruler Adud al-Dawla. Tughril’s marriage alliance with the caliph—by giving his niece in marriage—was also a symbolic union between religious and political authority. However, a significant departure in Tughril’s conduct was his proposal to marry the caliph’s own daughter. Initially, the caliph opposed this union, but under the pressure of Tughril’s military and political power, the marriage ultimately took place.

Reign and Marriage of his daughter with Tughril

Tughril’s wife died in the city of Zanjan and was buried in Rayy. Following this event, Tughril instructed Abu Sa‘id, who had been sent to Rayy, to convey to the caliph his desire to marry either his daughter or his sister. Although sources differ on the precise details of this episode, there is general agreement that the caliph initially opposed this request.

This opposition stemmed from the unprecedented nature of a caliphal daughter being married to a sultan—a situation without prior example. Upon hearing of the proposal, the caliph became angered and, through his envoy Abu Muhammad al-Tamimi, offered Tughril two options: either abandon the marriage proposal, send the caliph 300,000 dinars, and surrender the revenues of Wasit and its surrounding areas; or forget the idea of marriage altogether. At first, Tughril decided to reject the offer. However, as al-Kunduri informed him, such a refusal might be interpreted as a sign of weakness. Consequently, Tughril opted to formally accept the caliph’s proposal.

To this end, al-Kunduri, accompanied by Arslan Khatun—the wife of the caliph—went to the caliphal court, carrying numerous gifts and ornaments. After presenting Tughril’s gifts, Arslan Khatun informed the caliph that Tughril had accepted some of his conditions, while rejecting others. The caliph, displeased by this selective acceptance, chose not to respond and expressed his dissatisfaction. He even threatened to leave Baghdad if Tughril did not abandon the marriage proposal. At this point, the caliph ordered that his camp be relocated to the Nahrawan region. Nevertheless, senior figures at court warned the caliph of the potential consequences of such an action. The vizier Ibn Daris hosted a banquet for al-Kunduri in an attempt to defuse the tension.

The caliph’s displeasure arose mainly from Arslan Khatun's report that Tughril had not fully accepted the caliph’s conditions. After al-Kunduri failed to appease the caliph, Tughril departed for Hamadan. Upon learning of the situation, he wrote to the elders of the caliphate, complaining about the caliph’s lack of gratitude for his services. He also requested the return of his niece Arslan Khatun, who had been married to the caliph. Following this, al-Kunduri halted the payment of salaries to the caliph’s household. As a result, the caliph was forced to concede and approved Tughril’s marriage proposal under pressure. He sent a letter granting permission for the marriage.

Reign and relations with Alp Arslan

After accession of Alp Arslan, al-Qaim's power increased. In 1070, the autonomous emirs of Mecca and Medina came under the influence of the Seljuk–Abbasids. After Mecca and Medina came under Seljuk influence, the Fatimid vizier Nasr-Dawla asked for help from Alp Arslan against the Fatimids. Alp Arslan moved with his army upon the call for help and entered Anatolia via Azerbaijan. Alp Arslan first captured the castles of Manzikert and Erciş. Later, he went down to the Silvan and Diyarbekir (Amid) regions and made the emirs there his vassals of Seljuk Empire, then he went to Edessa and besieged the city. When the siege was prolonged, he lifted the siege by receiving a tribute of 50,000 dinars. After leaving Edessa, Alp Arslan crossed the Euphrates. Paul M. Cobb relates that a messenger from Cairo who accompanied the sultan remarked on the significance of the crossing, telling him: "This river has never before been crossed by a Turk except those who were slaves. But you today have crossed it as a king." Afterwards he advanced to Aleppo, which was in the hands of the Mirdasids, and captured the Byzantine castles on his way. When he arrived in Aleppo, he laid siege to the city due to the disobedience of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud, the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo. Some time after the siege, Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud came to Alp Arslan, apologized, and became his vassal. Later, as Egypt was preparing to advance, the Doukas–Byzantine envoy arrived and Alp Arslan turned his attention to Manzikert.

Alp Arslan deeply respected the caliph and took part in battle nominally under caliph's name. The Battle of Manzikert was fought between the Doukas–Byzantine empire and the Seljuks on 26 August 1071

Reign and al-Qa'im's recognition of Malik Shah as sultan

In 1072, in the final years of al-Qa'im, When Malik-Shah ascended as ruler in Isfahan, his uncle Qavurt claimed the throne for himself and sent Malik-Shah a message which said: "I am the eldest brother, and you are a youthful son; I have the greater right to my brother Alp-Arslan's inheritance." Malik-Shah then replied by sending the following message: "A brother does not inherit when there is a son." This message enraged Qavurt, who thereafter occupied Isfahan. In 1073, the Battle of Kerj Abu Dulaf took place near Hamadan, lasting three days. Qavurt was accompanied by his seven sons, and his army consisted of Turkmens, while the army of Malik-Shah consisted of ghulams ("military slaves") and contingents of Kurdish and Arab troops.

During the battle, the Turks of Malik-Shah's army mutinied against him, but he nevertheless managed to defeat and capture Qavurt. Qavurt then begged for mercy and in return promised to retire to Oman. However, Nizam al-Mulk declined the offer, claiming that sparing him was an indication of weakness. After some time, Qavurt was strangled to death with a bowstring, while two of his sons were blinded. After having dealt with that problem, Malik-Shah appointed Qutlugh-Tegin as the governor of Fars and Sav-Tegin as the governor of Kerman. The caliph recognised Malik Shah as sultan and invested with the "Sultan of East and West".

Adminstration and bureaucracy

In 1058 in Bahrain, a dispute over the reading of the khutba in Al-Qa'im's name between members of the Abd al-Qays tribe and the millenarian Ismaili Qarmatian state prompted a revolt led by Abu al-Bahlul al-Awwam that threw off Qarmatian rule and led to the unravelling of the Qarmatian state which finally collapsed in al-Hasa in 1067.

Abu Mansur ibn Yusuf was a wealthy Hanbali merchant in Baghdad and He was a benefactor and confidant to the caliph al-Qa'im.

Fakhr ad-Dawla Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Jahir was appointed as vizier by al-Qa'im in 1062. Fakhr ad-Dawla arrived and was "showered with gifts, robes of honor, and the title Fakhr ad-Dawla ('glory of the dynasty')." According to Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, he was also given the additional title Sharaf al-wuzarā'.

Fakhr ad-Dawla's first tenure lasted until 1068, when he was dismissed for a series of "infractions" (dhunūb) he had committed. The reasons included "his presence in the Bāb al-Hujra (Privy Chamber) without permission, and his wearing of 'Adud ad-Dawla's ceremonial robes." In other words, he had been acting above his station. According to the diary of Abu Ali ibn al-Banna, the dismissal was on Tuesday, 9 September 1068. Fakhr ad-Dawla was "despondent and apologetic" and "acquiesced in tears". He was escorted out of Baghdad on Thursday night (11 September) and ended up traveling to the court of the Banu Mazyad ruler Nur ad-Dawla Dubays. His belongings were later sent to him.

The competition to replace Fakhr ad-Dawla as vizier was fierce. Three different candidates were seriously considered, but none of them successfully took office as vizier. The caliph's initial choice was Abu Ya'la, father of Abu Shuja al-Rudhrawari, but he died on 11 September - before Fakhr ad-Dawla had even left Baghdad. Another early front-runner was the za'im Ibn Abd ar-Rahim, who was sent a letter to inform him of his selection to the vizierate before someone brought his sordid past to the caliph's attention: he had been part of al-Basasiri's entourage during his rebellion in 1058, and he had taken part in looting the caliph's palace and "attacking" the women of the harem. His name was immediately removed from contention. At this point, around mid-late November, Ibn al-Banna wrote that a rumor had started to go around that al-Qa'im would reinstate Fakhr ad-Dawla as vizier. At some point, another candidate, a Hanbali named Abu'l-'Ala', was considered, but he never took office.

Family

One of Al-Qa'im's wives was the sister of Abu Nasr bin Buwayh also known as Malik Rahim. She died in 1049–50. Another wife was Chaghri Beg's daughter Khadija Arslan Khatun. She had been betrothed to his only son Dhakhirat al-Mulk Abu'al-Abbas Muhammad. However, Muhammad died, and Khadija Arslan married Al-Qa'im in 1056. After Al-Qa'im's death in 1075, she married Ali ibn Faramurz. One of Al-Qa'im's concubines was Al-Jiha al-

Qa'mya, an Armenian.

His son Muhammad had a son, Al-Muqtadi, who succeeded his grandfather, born to an Armenian concubine named Urjuwan also known as Qurrut al-Ayn.

Al-Qa'im had a daughter named al-Sayyida. In 1061, Seljuk Sultan Tughril I sent the qadi of Ray to Baghdad, to ask her hand in marriage to him. The marriage contract was concluded in August–September 1062 outside Tabriz, with a marriage proportion of one hundred thousand dinars. She was brought to the Sultan's palace in March–April 1063. After Tughril's death, his successor Sultan Alp Arslan sent her back to Baghdad in 1064. In 1094, Caliph Al-Mustazhir compelled her to remain in her house lest she should intrigue for his overthrow. She died on 20 October 1102.

Death

When al-Qa'im was on his deathbed in 1075, Fakhr ad-Dawla took charge of his personal care - al-Qa'im did not want bloodletting but Fakhr ad-Dawla had it done anyway. Before he died, al-Qa'im advised his grandson and successor al-Muqtadi to keep the Banu Jahir in their position: "I have not seen better persons for the dawla than Ibn Jahir and his son; do not turn away from them."

Al-Qa'im died on 3 April 1074 at the age of 73. He was succeeded by his grandson Al-Muqtadi as the twenty-seventh Abbasid Caliph.