Carmilla is an 1872 Gothic novella by Irish author Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu. A foundational work of English-language vampire literature, it predated Bram Stoker's Dracula (1897) by 25 years. First published as a serial in The Dark Blue from 1871–72, the novella subsequently appeared in Le Fanu’s short story collection In a Glass Darkly in 1872. Set in 19th-century Styria, it is the story of a young woman who is pursued by the vampire Carmilla. Since its initial publication, Carmilla has often been regarded as one of the most influential vampire stories of all time; its title character is the literary prototype for the female and lesbian vampires in fiction.
The work is narrated by Laura, a young woman living in a secluded Austrian castle, who becomes the object of both affection and predation by the enigmatic Carmilla, leading to a complex and dangerous relationship marked by both romantic desires and vampiric violence. The narrative explores themes of sexual identity, the supernatural, and the tension between innocence and corruption, while maintaining a sense of dread and suspense.
Carmilla defined the vampire fiction genre and Gothic horror in general, and established Le Fanu as a major writer in the genre. The novella directly influenced later horror and mystery writers such as Bram Stoker, M. R. James, Henry James, and others. Due to its popularity, the work has been anthologised, having been adapted extensively for films, operas, video games, Halloween plays, comics, cartoons, radio, and other media since the late 19th century.
Contents
Publication
Carmilla first appeared as a serial in the literary magazine The Dark Blue in late 1871 and early 1872. Within the same year of the serial's conclusion, the novella was reprinted in Le Fanu's short-story collection In a Glass Darkly (1872) with alterations, the most significant of which being an additional preface re-framing the story as a case file of Le Fanu's fictional occult detective, Doctor Martin Hesselius. Comparing the work of two illustrators of the story, David Henry Friston and Michael Fitzgerald (whose work appears in the original magazine article but not in modern printings of the book) reveals inconsistencies in the characters' depictions. Consequently, confusion has arisen relating the illustrations to the plot.
Carmilla has frequently been republished both in collections and as a standalone work. Due to the intimate relationship described between Laura and Carmilla, the novella has often been shared via private queer publications. It has also been translated into Spanish. Isabella Mazzanti illustrated the book's 2014 edition, which was published by Editions Soleil and translated by Gaid Girard.
The 2019 edition of Carmilla was edited and introduced by Carmen Maria Machado. Her introduction, a pastiche mirroring Le Fanu's 1872 "Hesselius" prologue, adds an additional (fictional) framing story to the narrative by introducing the scholarship of a non-existent professor called Dr. Jane Leight. "Leight," according to Machado, claims that the story in Carmilla copied and censored the story of a real romance between two women. Machado claims the story is based on under-studied letters from Veronika Hausle to Pierre Fontenot, purportedly detailing a romance between Hausle and Marcia Marén. The edition includes footnotes and limited textual changes by Machado, as well as illustrations by Robert Kraiza. These changes both modernize some of Le Fanu's dialogue and humanize Carmilla, aligning with an artistic tradition that reclaims queer villains. Major themes of the work include questioning authority, reading for truth in stories altered by heterosexism, and uncovering silenced voices.
Plot summary
The story is presented as part of the casebook of Dr. Hesselius, which is being assembled by an unnamed assistant "for the laity."
A woman named Laura narrates, beginning with her childhood in a "picturesque and solitary" castle amid an extensive forest in Styria, where she lives with her father, a wealthy English widower retired from service to the Austrian Empire. Due to the remoteness of their "schloss," and because she is an only child, Laura has only her father, her governesses, and servants for company. She recounts that, when she was six, she had a vision of a beautiful visitor in her bedchamber. She recalls being punctured in her breast, although no wound was found. All the household assure Laura that it was just a dream, and there is no subsequent vision or visitation, but Laura insists that it was real.
Twelve years later, Laura's father tells her of a letter from his friend, General Spielsdorf. The General was supposed to visit them with his niece, Bertha Rheinfeldt, but she died under mysterious circumstances. The General promises to discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later.
Laura, saddened by the loss of a potential friend, longs for a companion. A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly brings Carmilla, a girl of Laura's age, into the family's care. Though Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, her mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent and cannot be delayed. On Laura's urging, her father proposes that the woman leave Carmilla in his care until she can return for her in three months. The woman agrees, but warns that the "nervous, but quite sane" Carmilla will not disclose any information whatsoever about her family, her past, or herself. Both girls instantly recognise each other from the "dream" they both had when they were young.
Carmilla and Laura grow to be close, but Carmilla's odd behaviors unsettle Laura. On the one hand, she refuses to tell Laura anything about herself, despite Laura's burning curiosity. On the other, she sometimes makes romantic advances towards Laura which cause conflicted feelings of attraction and revulsion. In addition to this, she never joins the household in its prayers, she sleeps much of the day, she never eats, and she seems to sleepwalk outside at night.
Motifs
Carmilla exhibits the primary characteristics of Gothic fiction. It includes a supernatural figure, a dark setting of an old castle, a mysterious atmosphere, and ominous or superstitious elements.
In the novella, Le Fanu opposes the Victorian view of women as merely useful possessions of men, relying on men and needing their constant guardianship. The male characters of the story, such as Laura's father and General Spielsdorf, are exposed as being the opposite of the putative Victorian males—helpless and unproductive. The nameless father reaches an agreement with Carmilla's mother, whereas Spielsdorf cannot control the fate of his niece, Bertha. Both of these scenes portray women as equal, if not superior to men. This female empowerment is even more clear if we consider Carmilla's vampiric predecessors and their relationship with their prey. Carmilla is the opposite of those male vampires—she is actually involved with her victims both emotionally and (theoretically) sexually. Moreover, she is able to exceed even more limitations by dominating death. In the end, her immortality is suggested to be sustained by the river where her ashes had been scattered.
Le Fanu also departs from the negative idea of female parasitism and lesbianism by depicting a mutual and irresistible connection between Carmilla and Laura. The latter, along with other female characters, becomes a symbol of all Victorian women—restrained and judged for their emotional reflexes. The ambiguity of Laura's speech and behaviour reveals her struggles with being fully expressive of her concerns and desires.
Another important element of "Carmilla" is the concept of dualism presented through the juxtaposition of vampire and human, as well as lesbian and heterosexual. It is also vivid in Laura's irresolution, since she "feels both attraction and repulsion" towards Carmilla. The duality of Carmilla's character is suggested by her human attributes, the lack of predatory demeanour, and her shared experience with Laura. According to Gabriella Jönsson, Carmilla can be seen as a representation of the dark side of all mankind.