Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany (c. 1184 – 10 August 1241), also known as Damsel of Brittany, Pearl of Brittany, or Beauty of Brittany, was the eldest daughter of Duke Geoffrey II and Duchess Constance of Brittany. Her father was the fourth son of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, and she was the niece of the English kings Richard I and John. As a potential threat to ascendency to the English throne, John imprisoned her in 1202 and she was held in captivity until her death. Like Empress Matilda and Elizabeth of York, Eleanor's claim to the English throne gained little support from the barons, under the expectation that the monarch should be male, despite legal provision for a female monarch. Some historians have commented that her imprisonment was "the most unjustifiable act of King John".
Contents
Early life
Eleanor was born around 1184 to Duke Geoffrey II and Duchess Constance of Brittany. Her father died when she was very young. After Geoffrey's death, his children were raised by his brother King Richard I of England and their mother, Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine. By the death of her father, Eleanor was the first in line of Breton succession, so King Philip II of France asked for her wardship. However, her grandfather King Henry II of England took her wardship in advance, and the birth of her brother Arthur in 1187 removed her status as the first heiress. Being King Richard's ward meant that she was under Angevin custody; thus even her mother, Constance, did not consider her a potential heir to the Duchy of Brittany, which weakened her later claim. Keeping her custody under Richard was probably the price for her mother to rule Brittany.
As Arthur was the heir presumptive to England and Brittany, Eleanor was one of the most marriageable princesses. In 1190, after Richard failed to marry his younger sister Joan of England to Al-Adil I, brother of Saladin, he proposed that Eleanor should be the bride instead; but the negotiation was also in vain, as Al-Adil showed no interest in Christianity. In 1193, Eleanor was engaged to Frederick, son of Leopold V, Duke of Austria, as part of the conditions to release Richard, whom Emperor Henry VI had taken prisoner. However, when she was on the way to Austria with Baldwin of Bethune the next year, Leopold died so the marriage never took place. Under order of Pope Celestine III she returned to England, accompanied by her grandmother Eleanor.
In summer 1195, a marriage between Eleanor and Louis, son of Philip II of France, was suggested as an alliance between Richard and Philip, but negotiations failed again. Henry VI opposed the marriage; and the failure was also a sign that Richard would replace Arthur as heir to England with John. This soon led to a sudden deterioration in relations between Richard and Philip. A marriage with Odo III, Duke of Burgundy, may have been suggested, for in 1198 Philip forbade Odo to marry any relatives of Richard without his permission.
Imprisonment
Under John
Upon the death of King Richard in 1199, a power struggle commenced between the supporters of John and the 12-year-old Arthur. The date of her imprisonment by John is unknown, but Pipe Roll 2 dated c. 1199 – 1200 indicates John provided "necessaries" to Eleanor, and Arthur once complained that his sister was controlled by John. At the request of Constance, Eleanor was once released from royal custody and united with her mother and brother in France. Therefore, Eleanor was probably already under John's control when Arthur's forces were defeated and he was captured at the Battle of Mirebeau in August 1202, or she was perhaps captured along with Arthur. Arthur disappeared mysteriously while in captivity the following year.
In December 1203, John fled from Normandy, taking Eleanor with him as his captive. She was reportedly taken to the north of England and then to Bristol, guarded by four knights. In spring 1204, Philip II demanded that Eleanor be released in order to marry his younger son. Initially, John organized local barons to visit Eleanor in order to prove her well-being. In 1206, John briefly detained her at Brough Castle in Cumbria, entrusting her to Robert de Vieuxpont, who was its custodian, before moving her to Bowes Castle and then to Corfe Castle, along with 25 French knights loyal to her, guarded by Stephen de Turnham. After an attempt to escape, 22 of them were recaptured and were starved to death.
Eleanor lived in Corfe's Gloriet Tower, took her meals in the Long Hall and was allowed to walk abroad along the walls. She was allowed three maids and was provided fabric for clothes and bedding, and pocket money as much as 5 marks per quarter. She also received from John a saddle with gilded reins and scarlet ornaments, a gift which implies that she was not closely confined. John also sent her figs and almonds. A week's shopping list for Eleanor in captivity that has survived suggests the aristocratic diet at that time: Saturday: bread, ale, sole, almonds, butter, eggs. Sunday: mutton, pork, chicken and eggs. Monday: beef, pork, honey, vinegar. Tuesday. pork, eggs, egret. Wednesday: herring, conger, sole, eels, almonds and eggs. Thursday: pork, eggs, pepper, honey. Friday: conger, sole, eels, herring and almonds.
As the eldest daughter of Constance, Eleanor should have been recognized as duchess of Brittany after the death of Arthur. Instead, the Breton barons, fearing John's claims to rule Brittany in representation of Eleanor's rights or to marry her to a vassal loyal to England, made her younger half-sister Alix duchess instead. Eleanor was styled Duchess of Brittany and Countess of Richmond, as successor to her brother, but this was only a titular title as Alix became duchess of Brittany in 1203 and was also styled Countess of Richmond, even making charters about this estate. The Breton barons, ignorant of Eleanor's whereabouts, were ready to install her as duchess in case she were released. John permitted her to use the titles of Brittany and Richmond and even talked with Breton nobles about letting her go. In 1208 John had Eleanor write a letter to Breton barons and churchmen such as the bishops of Nantes, Vannes, and Cornouaille, describing her life in captivity, expressing her hope of being liberated and asking them to arrive in England to negotiate her release:"... uos rogamus attencius quatinus uos supranominati ad dominum auunculum meum Regem Angliae in Angliam ueniatis scituri pro certo quod aduentus uester Deo uolente nobis et uobis ad magnum cedet commodum et honorem, et per Dei gratiam ad liberacionem nostram." (I ask you most solicitously that you, the above-named, would travel to England, to my lord uncle, the King of England, knowing for certain that your coming, God willing, will confer great honor and benefit to ourselves and yourselves, and, by the grace of God, our liberation.)
Under Henry III
John died towards the end of the civil conflict in 1216; although, according to the laws of primogeniture, the claim of Eleanor was better, English barons allowed King John's young son, Henry III of England, to succeed. As her claim to England and Aquitaine was still a threat to his son, before his death John stated that Eleanor should never be released. Thus, albeit never a rallying point for English discontent during the early part of Henry III's reign, Eleanor remained imprisoned. Her survival was ensured according to the treaty between England and France. In 1218, Eleanor ceased to be styled Countess of Richmond after William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, Henry's regent, recognized Peter of Brittany as the earl. Henry III styled Eleanor, now with no title left, as "king's kinswoman", or "our cousin".
In 1221, there was a rumour of a plan to rescue Eleanor and deliver her to the king of France. In September, Eleanor accompanied Isobel of Scotland in Southampton, while both received robes, cloaks, hats, and headscarves lined with squirrel and deer skin. In 1225, Peter de Maulay was accused of planning with the king of France to free Eleanor, and he subsequently fell out of favour. The allegation may have been false, to discredit de Maulay and Peter des Roches, who also fell out of royal favour in spring 1234. Whether the plot existed or not, Eleanor was moved away from the coast. From June 1222, she was transferred between Gloucester, Marlborough and Bristol. She was finally settled at Bristol from June 1224 for a time and was visited by Henry III. Gloucester Castle temporarily moved all its prisoners elsewhere to accommodate Eleanor. A chamber in the tower of Gloucester Castle was thought to have been occupied by her. When Eleanor was relocated to Marlborough Castle, the council instructed that additional cavalry and crossbowmen should be added to the existing guards there. In 1227, Jocelin of Wells, Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury, signed an order to increase the staff of Bristol Castle to help keep Eleanor confined.
Though Henry III established a law that could prevent Eleanor from legal succession to the crown and considered that Eleanor would never legally inherit, he and his government took actions from 1223 to keep Eleanor captive. They appointed and monitored her keepers and frequently changed them. Between 1225 and 1226, Bristol's diet accounts showed the use of locks, keys, and other safety equipment. For example, the entry in 1225 records the cost of repairing the door lock on 27 June, purchasing a door key for one penny on 25 August, and spending four pence on the key to the tower on 25 December. In 1227, the Close Roll accounts mention the keeping of the keys to Eleanor's room. Such records might mean that, for a period of time, Eleanor was locked in her tower or room.
Death and legacy
Eleanor died as a nun in 1241 at the age of 57 or 59. She was initially buried at St James' Priory, Bristol, then reburied at Amesbury Abbey, according to her wishes, announced by Henry. She also donated her body there. Considering the association between Amesbury and the Plantagenets, Eleanor's final choice of burial place was probably a sign of submission and loyalty to her dynasty, but it may also have been her last protest about the fate of herself and her brother Arthur, as the abbey was dedicated to Virgin Mary and St Melor, a young Breton prince murdered by his wicked uncle who usurped his throne. However, neither burial place has a memorial for her remains.
The Chronicle of Lanercost claims that the remorseful Henry had given a gold crown to Eleanor to legitimize himself and his descendants shortly before her death, and only three days later the crown was donated to young Prince Edward (the future Edward I of England) as a gift. Another version says that she only wore the crown for one day before returning it.
The Annales Londonienses records the event of Eleanor's death, referring to her as "Alienora quondam comitis Britanniæ filia, in custodia diuturni carceris strictissime reservata" ("Eleanor, the daughter of the late Count of Brittany, long established in the custody of the strictest prison reserved"), and notes that she was the rightful heir to England, although some years after her death Henry was still unwilling to admit that he was initially not the hereditary king of England. The Annals of Tewkesbury record the death "IV Id Aug" in 1241 of "Alienora de Britannia consanguinea domini regis Henrici Angliæ" ("Eleanor of Brittany a blood relative of the lord King Henry of England"). The Chronicle of Lanercost records Eleanor as being a most beautiful, determined, and tactful woman. The limited sources about her character are consistent with this assessment and suggest that she was never resigned to her fate, as even decades of confinement could not force her to relinquish her rights although there was little hope of their being fulfilled. Contemporary historian Matthew Paris simply notes "about this time died Eleanor, daughter of Geoffrey, count of Brittany, who had long been kept in close confinement", with no further detail of her life or situation. Florentii Wigorniensis Monachi Chronicon Ex Chronids records, "Alienor, filia Galfridi comitis Britannia soror Arturi, obiit. ("Alinor, daughter of Galfrid, Earl of Britannia, and sister of Arthur, dies.)"
The bailiffs there were commanded to provide tapers and alms for her obsequies. Henry ordered her funeral to be as dignified as possible. Tapers, alms and candles for her obsequies totalled £20 7s. In 1246 and 1250 Henry arranged for a priest to say daily masses in a chapel at Marlborough Castle and Bristol Castle respectively in memory of Eleanor; In 1268 Henry gave the manor of Melksham, Wiltshire, a place that Eleanor had been fond of, to Amesbury for the souls of Eleanor and Arthur, ordering the convent to commemorate them along with all kings and queens. Thus Eleanor became a benefactress to the abbey.
Portrayals
No one made Eleanor the heroine of any prose or poem for a long time, and the first academic article with her as its heroine did not come into existence until 1907.
Eleanor sometimes appears in speculative fiction, for example, in Mary Robinson's Angelina (1796). In Thomas Costain's novel Below the Salt, the author has Eleanor escape, marry a knight with land in Ireland, and raise a family there. The series Through a Dark Mist, In the Shadow of Midnight, and The Last Arrow by Marsha Canham is about the rescue of Eleanor, suggesting that William Marshal also wanted Eleanor to be liberated. Eleanor appears in the novels Here Be Dragons by Sharon Kay Penman, Sirocco Wind from the East by Virginia Ann Work, and as the heroine in The Shimmering Sky by Rik Denton. Eleanor's life story is also told in first person in The Captive Princess by J.P. Reedman.
In her poem The Lament of Eleanor of Bretagne, the Victorian English novelist and poet Menella Bute Smedley imagines Eleanor's melancholy feelings as she aged under weary imprisonment.