Emperor Wen of Sui (隋文帝; 21 July 541 – 13 August 604), personal name Yang Jian (楊堅), childhood name Naluoyan (那羅延), Xianbei name Puliuru Jian (普六茹堅), was the founding emperor of the Sui dynasty of China. As a Buddhist, he encouraged the spread of Buddhism through the state.
He is credited with reunifying China proper in 589, bringing an end to nearly three centuries of political fragmentation that began with the breakaway of the Cheng-Han and Han-Zhao regimes from the Western Jin in 304. His reign also saw the initiation of the Grand Canal, a major infrastructure project that would later facilitate the integration of northern and southern China.
As a Northern Zhou official, Yang Jian served with apparent distinction during the reigns of the Emperor Wu and Emperor Xuan. When the erratic Emperor Xuan died in 580, Yang, as his father-in-law, seized power as regent. After defeating General Yuchi Jiong, who resisted him, he seized the throne for himself, establishing the new Sui dynasty. Yang Jian was the first ethnic Han ruler to control the entirety of North China after the Xianbei people conquered the region from the Liu Song dynasty (not counting the brief reconquest by Emperor Wu of Liang).
Generally speaking, Emperor Wen's reign was a great period of prosperity, not seen since the Han dynasty. Economically, the nation prospered. It was said that there was enough food stored for 50 years. The military was also powerful. At the beginning of his reign, Sui faced the threat of the Göktürks in the north, neighbored Tibetan tribes in the west, Goguryeo in the northeast, and Champa (Linyi) in the south. By the end of Emperor Wen's reign, the Göktürks had split into an eastern and a western khaganate, the eastern one being nominally submissive to Sui, as was Goguryeo. Champa was defeated and, while not conquered, did not remain a threat.
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Early life
Yang Jian was a member of the northwestern Chinese military aristocracy which had arisen during the previous period of division, and he had served as a general under the Xianbei-led Northern Zhou. Yang Jian's family was the Yang clan of Hongnong (弘農楊氏), which had Han origins but had intermarried with the Xianbei for generations. Yang Jian's clan specifically claimed descent from the Han dynasty general Yang Zhen. Yang Zhen's eighth-generation descendant Yang Xuan (楊鉉) served as a commandery governor for a Yan state (Former Yan or Later Yan) during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period, and his descendants subsequently served the Northern Wei dynasty. Yang Jian emphasized Han Chinese cultural identity throughout his reign.
Yang Jian's father was Yang Zhong, a follower of the late-Northern Wei general Yuwen Tai, who later became prominent in the politics of the Western Wei under Yuwen's regency. Due to his achievements, Yang Zhong and his family were bestowed the surname of "Puliuru" (普六茹) as part of Yuwen's Xianbeification policies. Yang Jian's mother was Lady Lü, who gave birth to him in a Buddhist temple in Pingyi (馮翊, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi). A Buddhist nun, Zhixian, was impressed with Yang Jian's appearance, and raised him in his early years. Yang Jian attended the imperial college for the sons of the nobility and high officials. When he was 14 years old, he was appointed to serve in the military under Yuwen Tai.
In 555, on account of Yang Zhong's accomplishments, Yang Jian received several official ranks, including the title of the Duke of Chengji County (成紀縣公). In 557, Dugu Xin, impressed with Yang Jian, gave his daughter, Empress Dugu Qieluo, to Yang and made her his wife. He was 16, and she was 13. After Yuwen Tai's son Emperor Ming of Northern Zhou came to the throne later that year, Yang Jian was made the vice minister of internal affairs, and he was created the greater title of Duke of Daxing Commandery (大興郡公).
During the reign of Emperor Ming's brother Emperor Wu, Yang Jian was further promoted in military authority. After Yang Zhong's death in 568, he inherited the title of Duke of Sui. In 573, Emperor Wu took Yang Jian's daughter Yang Lihua to be the wife and crown princess of his son Yuwen Yun the Crown Prince, and further honored Yang Jian.
However, Yang Jian was suspected to have treasonous intentions due to his unusual appearance. Both Emperor Wu's brother Yuwen Xian, the Prince of Qi and the general Wang Gui (王軌) have suggested that Emperor Wu execute Yang Jian, but Emperor Wu rejected. To avoid trouble, Yang Jian tried to hide his talents.
Regency
In the summer of 581, Emperor Xuan intended to conquer Chen dynasty and sent Yang Jian to be the commandant at Yang Province (揚州, roughly modern Lu'an, Anhui) for the campaign. However, Before Yang Jian could depart, Emperor Xuan suddenly fell seriously ill. Two of Emperor Xuan's close associates, Liu Fang (劉昉) and Zheng Yi (鄭譯), who were friends of Yang's, summoned Yang to the palace to prepare to serve as regent. This action overrode another influential associate, Yan Zhiyi (顏之儀), who had supported the idea of appointing Emperor Xuan's uncle, Yuwen Zhao (宇文招), the Prince of Zhao, as regent. Emperor Xuan soon died, and Zheng and Liu issued an edict in Emperor Xuan's name appointing Yang regent.
Yang, as the regent, abolished the wastefulness and cruel policies of Emperor Xuan, and he himself demonstrated both hard work and frugality, which impressed the people. Yang Jian, concerned about the potential threat posed by General Yuchi Jiong, summoned him back to the capital. However, Yuchi refused, believing that Yang Jian might be attempting to usurp the throne. Yuchi then rose at Xiang Province against Yang. He was supported by the generals Sima Xiaonan (司馬消難), the commandant at Xun Province (勛州, roughly modern Xiaogan, Hubei) and Wang Qian (王謙), the commandant at Yi Province (roughly modern Chengdu, Sichuan). Within 68 days, general Wei Xiaokuan defeated Yuchi, who eventually committed suicide. Wang Qian was also defeated, and Sima fled to Chen. To prevent Yuchi's former headquarters at Yecheng from being used as a base of opposition, Yang Jian ordered the city to be demolished.
During Yuchi's campaign, Zhou princes like Yuwen Xian Prince of Bi and Yuwen Zhao made attempts to assassinate Yang, but failed. In response, Yang put Yuwen Xian, Yuwen Zhao and Zhao's younger brother Yuwen Sheng (宇文盛) the Prince of Yue and their sons to death, and after Yuchi was defeated, he began to eliminate the Yuwen clan systematically. He also had Emperor Jing promote his titles quickly, and he changed his surname from Puliuru back to Yang. Around the beginning of 581, his title was promoted to Prince of Sui (隨王). In spring 581, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui dynasty. Yang's choice of "Sui" as the name for his new dynasty was typical of Chinese historical dynastic transitions—using the old fief name as the new dynasty's name—but he, believing that the character for his fief Sui (隨) to contain a "辶" radical, denoting "walking" and therefore a lack of permanence in the regime, removed "辶" from the character, rendering it "隋".
Early Kaihuang era
The Book of Sui records Emperor Wen as having withdrawn his favour from the Confucians, giving it to "the group advocating Legalism and authoritarian government." Emperor Wen abolished Northern Zhou's governmental organization of six departments, instead establishing five main bureaus—executive bureau (Shangshu Sheng (尚書省)), examination bureau (Menxia Sheng (門下省)), legislative bureau (Neishǐ Sheng (內史省)), Palace Library, and eunuch bureau (Neishì Sheng (內侍省—note different tone and character versus 'legislative bureau')), with two additional independent agencies, 11 other independent departments, and 12 military commands.
Yang Jian posthumously honored his father, Yang Zhong, and his mother, Lady Lü, as emperor and empress. He made his wife, Duchess Dugu, empress and their eldest son, Yang Yong, crown prince. He also granted imperial titles to his brothers and other sons. Initially, he created Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou the Duke of Jie but later ordered the execution of all grandsons of Yuwen Tai, including the Duke of Jie. He assigned most of the important governmental matters to his officials Gao Jiong, Yang Su, and Su Wei. He also sent his sons out to key provinces with broad powers. Additionally, he commissioned the official Pei Zheng to carry out a project aimed at simplifying the penal code and reducing the penalties of harsh laws, a reform that was later largely accepted by subsequent dynasties.
Emperor Wen did not maintain as submissive a relationship with the Göktürks, which brought resentment from the Göktürks' Ishbara Qaghan. In response to border attacks from the Göktürks and an alliance with Gao Baoning, a former general of Northern Qi who still controlled Ying Province, Emperor Wen, advised by General Zhangsun Sheng, implemented a strategy to create divisions within the Göktürks by placating Ishbara's subordinate qağans. This strategy successfully prevented the Göktürks from acting united against Sui.
In 581, Emperor Wen commissioned a major attack on Chen, and while it was initially successful, Emperor Wen withdrew the attack in spring 582 after hearing that Emperor Xuan of Chen had died, believing it wrong to attack a state whose emperor had just died.
In 582, believing that Chang'an was too small of a city, Emperor Wen built a new capital near the ancient city of Luoyang, which he named Daxing, and in spring 583 he moved the capital to Daxing.
Late Kaihuang era
After Chen was conquered, Sui began to apply its laws over Chen's former territory—which brought resentment from the gentry, as they had been treated preferentially under Chen and its predecessor dynasties in the south. In 590, rumors spread that Sui planned to relocate Chen subjects to the Guanzhong region, leading to widespread but disorganized rebellions. Emperor Wen sent army to suppress the uprisings, and within the year, the rebellions were quelled.
In 591, Tuyuhun sought peace and its khan Murong Shifu (慕容世伏) sent his daughter to be a concubine for Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen accepted the peace offer but declined the offer of Murong Shifu's daughter.
In 592, Emperor Wen reduced taxes due to an abundance of food and silk in government stores, and he also sent messengers across central China to redistribute land, providing farming land to the poor.
In 593, Emperor Wen commissioned the construction of a summer vacation palace, Renshou Palace (仁壽宮), which is away from capital Chang'an. The palace was completed in 595, and turned out to be more luxurious than expected and caused many deaths during its construction.
In 594, due to a famine in the Guanzhong region, Emperor Wen temporarily moved to Luoyang. To share in the suffering of his people, he abstained from eating meat for a year.
Late in 594, Crown Prince Yang Guang petitioned Emperor Wen to carry out the ancient ceremonies of worshipping the heaven and earth gods at Mount Tai. Emperor Wen declined a full ceremony due to its cost but conducted a shortened version in spring 595 to seek blessings for the ongoing drought.
Also in spring 595, Emperor Wen ordered that no weapons be held by private individuals and that all of them be collected and destroyed, although he exempted the border provinces from this edict.
In 596, Emperor Wen married Princess Guanghua to Murong Shifu, to cement the peaceful relations with Tuyuhun.
Renshou era
In 602, Empress Dugu died, and Emperor Wen was greatly saddened.
Also in 602, Crown Prince Yang Guang believed that Yang Xiu would pose a threat for him. He had Yang Su collect evidence of Yang Xiu's wastefulness and use of items that were only appropriate for emperors. After Yang Su submitted the evidence to Emperor Wen, Yang Xiu was recalled to the capital. Yang Guang further fabricated evidence that Yang Xiu had cursed Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen then reduced Yang Xiu to commoner rank and placed him under house arrest.
In 603, Ashina Dianjue, faced with rebellions from the Tiele and Pugu (僕骨) tribes, surrendered to Ashina Rangan. By now, Ashina Rangan became the khan of the Göktürks.
In spring 604, Emperor Wen, as per his custom, went to Renshou Palace to avoid the heat. While at the palace, he fell ill, and in the fall of 604, he died. Emperor Wen was buried at the Tailing (泰陵) tumulus mausoleum in the Yangling District, with Empress Dugu buried nearby, though not in the same burial chamber.
How Emperor Wen died is controversial. According to most traditional historians, while Emperor Wen was ill, Yang Guang attempted to rape one of his concubines. When the concubine reported this to Emperor Wen, he became angry and ordered the officials Liu Shu (柳述, husband of his daughter, Princess Lanling) and Yuan Yan (元巖), Duke of Longgu, to summon Yang Yong with the intent of restoring him to power. After learning of this, Yang Guang, with the help of Yang Su, had Liu and Yuan arrested. Yang Guang then sent his associate, Zhang Heng, to kill Emperor Wen. Afterward, Yang Guang had Yang Yong executed, and only then announced Emperor Wen's death before taking the throne as Emperor Yang.
The historian Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, borrowing parts of analyses from the Book of Sui and the History of the Northern Dynasties, opined:
Gaozu [Emperor Wen's temple name] was by nature cautious and solemn, and he always made sure that his orders are carried out, whether it be an order for an affirmative act or for a prohibition. He got up early in the morning to host imperial gatherings, and he would not appear tired even after noon. Although he was himself stingy, but he did not hold back his awards when rewarding the people with accomplishments. He gave much compensation to the families of soldiers who died in battle, and sent messengers to comfort them. He loved his people, encouraging them to till the field and grow mulberries, and decreasing their labor and tax burdens. He himself lived simply and frugally, and the vessels and clothes he used, even after they became worn out, continued to be patched and used. Except at feasts, his meals would contain a single meat dish. The clothes of the palace women were continued to be used even after they were washed. Based on his influence, during his reign, men only wore cotton and cloth, not silk, and their decorations were made of copper, iron, bones, and horns, not gold, silver, or gemstones. There were bountiful productions of food and textile, so much so that the storage was insufficient for them. At the start of his reign, the census rolls only had less than four million households, but at the end of his reign, there were almost nine million households, and Ji Province [(冀州, roughly modern Hengshui, Hebei)] by itself contained one million households. However, he was suspicious, critical, and picky, believing many alienating words of his officials. Therefore, even of those with the most accomplishments and his old friends, not one was able to maintain the relationship from start to end. He even treated his own sons as enemies. These were his faults.
Family
Empress Wenxian, of the Dugu clan of Henan (文獻皇后 河南獨孤氏; 544–602), personal name Qieluo (伽羅)
Princess Leping (樂平公主; 561–609), personal name Lihua (麗華), first daughter
Married Yuwen Yun (559–580) in 573, and had issue (two daughters)
Princess Xiangguo (襄国公主), second daughter
Married Li Changya, Duke of Heyang (李長雅)
Yang Yong, Prince of Fangling (房陵王 楊勇; 568–604), first son
Yang Guang, Emperor Yang (煬皇帝 楊廣; 569–618), second son
Princess Guangping (廣平公主), third daughter
Married Yuwen Jingli, Duke of Ande (宇文靜禮), and had issue (two sons)
Yang Jun, Prince Xiao of Qin (秦孝王 楊俊; 571–600), third son
Fourth daughter
Yang Xiu, Prince of Shu (蜀王 楊秀; 573–618), fourth son
Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主; 573–604), personal name Awu (阿五), fifth daughter
Married Wang Fengxiao (王奉孝; d. 583) in 580
Married Liu Shu of Hedong, Duke of Jian'an (河東 柳述) in 585
Yang Liang, Prince of Han (漢王 楊諒; 575–605), fifth son
Madame Xuanhua, of the Chen clan of Yingchuan (宣華夫人 潁川陳氏; 577–605)