Qin

History

Founding

According to the 2nd-century BC Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, the state of Qin traced its origin to Zhuanxu, one of the legendary Five Emperors in ancient times. One of his descendants, Boyi, was granted the family name of Ying by Emperor Shun. During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Ying clan split in two: a western branch that migrated across the Ordos Plateau to Quanqiu (犬丘; 'hill of the Quanrong', modern Li County, Gansu), and an eastern branch that settled east of the Yellow River in modern Shanxi. The latter became the ancestors of the rulers of the later state of Zhao.

The western Ying clan at Quanqiu were lords over the Xichui ('western march') region west of Mount Long and served as a buffer state for the Shang dynasty against invasions by the Xirong (also called Rong). One of the Shang, Elai, was killed defending Di Xin during the rebellion led by Ji Fa that established the Zhou dynasty. The Ying clan was, however, allied with the politically influential marquesses of Shen, whom the Zhou monarch relied upon heavily to manage the Rong people. The Ying clan was thus allowed to retain their lands and continued serving as an attached vassal under the Zhou dynasty. Feizi, a younger son of Elai's fourth-generation descendant Daluo, impressed King Xiao of Zhou so much with his horse breeding skills that he was awarded a separate fief in the valley of Qin (modern Qingshui and Zhangjiachuan in Gansu) northeast of Quanqiu, and his seat was named Qinyi (秦邑; Qin's hamlet) in the modern town of Qinting (秦亭). Both branches of the western Ying clan lived in the midst of the Rong tribes, sometimes fighting their armies and sometimes intermarrying with their kings.

Scholars Annette Juliano and Arthur Cotterel have suggested that having a horse-breeder as their ancestor may imply that the Ying family had a partial connection to nomadic tribes. As late as 266 BC, a noble of Wei remarked that they shared customs with the Rong and Beidi tribes. The Central Plains states seemed to hold Qin culture and that of other peripheral states like Yan and Chu in low regard, due to the marginal location of their states. Qin was the second state after Zhao to adopt cavalry tactics from the nomads. Following the collapse of the Zhou dynasty, the Qin state absorbed cultures from two of the Four Barbarians (Rong and Beidi) from the west and north, which made the other warring states view their culture with low esteem. The Qin state was sensitive to cultural discrimination by Central Plains states and attempted to assert their Huaxia identity. In Qin law, mixed-ethnicity offspring were categorised as Huaxia, and they had a preference for importing recruits from the neighbouring state of Jin.

Spring and Autumn period

During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), the Qin state's interaction with other central Chinese states remained minimal due to their focus on dealing with the Rong to the west. The exception was their immediate eastern neighbor, Jin, a large vassal of the Zhou. Qin maintained diplomatic relations with Jin through intermarriages between the royal clans, but relations occasionally deteriorated to the point of armed conflict.

In the early reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the Jin state, under the leadership of Duke Xian of Jin, was a formidable power. However, after Duke Xian's death, Jin descended into internal conflict as Duke Xian's sons fought for succession. Duke Hui of Jin, one of the contenders, emerged victorious. However, Jin was struck by a famine in 647 BC, and Duke Hui requested aid from Qin. Duke Mu of Qin, married to Duke Hui's half-sister, sent relief food supplies and agricultural equipment to Jin out of goodwill. However, when Qin experienced a famine the following year, Duke Hui did not reciprocate, leading to diplomatic deterioration and a war in 645 BC. The war ended with Duke Hui's defeat and capture, but Duke Mu later released him after Jin agreed to cede land and form an alliance.

During the battles with Jin, Duke Mu learned that Chong'er, one of Duke Xian's exiled sons, was taking refuge in the state of Chu. After consulting his subjects, Duke Mu sent an emissary to Chu to invite Chong'er and support him in his challenge against his brother, Duke Hui. After Chong'er defeated Duke Hui to become Duke Wen of Jin, he expressed gratitude to Duke Mu, and relations between the two states improved. With stability on his eastern front, Duke Mu seized the opportunity to launch military campaigns against the Rong tribes in the west.

In 630 BC, Qin and Jin agreed to wage war on the state of Zheng, but Duke Mu was lobbied by the Zheng emissary to abandon the alliance. In 627 BC, Duke Mu planned a covert attack on Zheng, but the Qin army retreated after being deceived into believing that Zheng was already prepared for Qin's invasion. By that point, Duke Wen had died and his personal alliance with Duke Mu no longer stood, and his successor Duke Xiang ordered an ambush for the retreating Qin army. The Qin forces were defeated at the Battle of Xiao (near modern Luoning County, Henan); the Qin suffered heavy casualties, and all three of its generals were captured. Three years later, Qin attacked Jin for revenge and achieved a major victory. Duke Mu refused to advance further east after holding a memorial service for those killed in action at the Battle of Xiao and returned to focus on the traditional policy of expanding Qin's dominance in the west. Duke Mu's achievements in Qin's western campaigns and his handling of foreign relations with Jin earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period.

Warring States Period

Mozi (460–390 BC) did not list Qin among the powerful states. However, other scattered information about its military exploits indicates that Qin had remained a powerful polity since Duke Mu's rule. Its armies acted, even if infrequently, in the eastern and southeastern parts of the Chinese world, occasionally against the great power of Wu. Although not weak, the overall impact of Qin on the affairs of the Zhou world in the 5th and the early 4th century BC was considerably diminished. There is evidence that this diminished influence was a result of Qin adopting an isolationist policy to avoid entanglement in the wars of the Central Plains, rather than military weakness. Initially, Qin avoided involvement using its protective geography and, responding to growing external threats, gradually turned to intervention in the manner of "defensive imperialism".

During the early Warring States period, its neighbours in the Central Plains began rapidly developing. The Wei state, formed from the partition of Jin, became the most powerful state on Qin's eastern border. Qin largely relied on natural defences such as the Hangu Pass (northeast of modern Lingbao, Henan) and Wu Pass (modern Danfeng County) in the east, to protect its Guanzhong heartland. Between 413 and 409 BC, during the reign of Duke Jian of Qin, the Wei army—led by Wu Qi and supported by Zhao and Han states—attacked Qin and conquered some Qin territories west of the Yellow River.

In 362 BC, Qin defeated Wei and Han. Following these victories, Qin rulers actively pursued legal, economic, and social reforms. In 361 BC, Duke Xiao ascended to the throne of Qin. He issued an announcement inviting men of talent (including scholars, administrators, theorists, and military experts from other states) to enter Qin and assist him with his reforms, promising rewards of high offices and lands in return.

Among these foreign talents, Shang Yang successfully conducted a series of Legalist reforms in Qin with the support of Duke Xiao, despite facing strong opposition from conservative Qin politicians. Direct primogeniture was abolished, with all commoners granted citizenship rights. Many were resettled in new clusters with a focus on increasing agricultural output. Stringent and strict laws were imposed, with severe punishments being meted out for the slightest of offences; nobility and royalty were not exempt.

Meritocracy was practiced throughout, especially in the military, with soldiers and officers receiving due rewards according to their contributions, regardless of their backgrounds. Previously, the army was under the control of Qin's nobles and was composed of feudal levies. Following Shang Yang's reforms, the aristocracy system was abolished and replaced by a meritocracy, in which ordinary citizens had the same opportunities as nobles to be promoted to high ranks. Additionally, military discipline was strictly enforced, and troops were trained to adapt more effectively to various battle situations. Qin's military strength increased significantly with the full support of the state.

Unification

In 247, the 13-year-old Ying Zheng became King of Qin following the sudden death of King Zhuangxiang. However, Ying Zheng did not fully wield state power until 238, after eliminating his political rivals, Lü Buwei and Lao Ai. Ying formulated a plan for conquering the other six states and unifying China, with assistance from Han Fei, Li Si and Wei Liao.

Legalist scholar Han Fei (c. 280-233 BC) expanded upon Shang Yang's theories and amalgamated them with those of Shen Buhai and Shen Dao, forming the core philosophies of Legalism. According to Han Fei, for a long time Qin was reluctant to conquer and annex other states. Three times Qin defeated Vertical Alliances, each time could perform universal conquest, but each time Qin State Councilors prevented this conquest from the King of Qin, made peace with the defeated powers, withdrew the troops, and allowed the defeated powers to recover, form another Vertical Alliance, and attack Qin. Three times universal rule was missed "due to the incompetence of the State Councilors" and each time led to disastrous consequences. Han Fei was executed in 233 BC, before the universal conquest. Hence, his account is not a post-factum reflection.

The universal conquest had been advocated by both Qin Chief Councilor, Li Si, and Han Fei as preventive war, to prevent the formation of a new Vertical Alliance. In 246 BC, Li Si composed "Memorial on the Abolition of Feudal Lords" for his King Cheng who would conquer China and become the First Emperor. "Now, says the Memorial, with the might of Qin and the victories of Your Highness, at one stroke, like sweeping off the dust from a kitchen stove, the feudal lords can be annihilated, imperial rule can be established, and unification of the world can be brought about... If Your Highness allows it to slip away and does not press the advantage in haste, the feudal lords will revive their strength and organize themselves into an anti-Qin alliance."

In 234 BC, Han Fei warned King Cheng of an organizing Vertical Alliance. Uniting the combined first-class forces of Qi and Zhao, the Vertical Alliance would mobilize 20,000 chariots, and Qin would become a "target for the armies of the world!" By this time, State Councilors, led by Li Si, had become convinced that the hegemonic strategy as practiced since 364 BC does not work. Li Si stated that the "might of Qin" is sufficient for universal conquest. This was not news for a King of Qin. Since 318 BC, Qin repeatedly defeated Vertical Alliances and conquered their cities. New was the position of State Councillors. This time the King of Qin was not checked and balanced by them and was free to launch a universal conquest.

Culture and society

Before Qin unified China, each state had its own customs and culture. According to the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu, composed in the 4th or 5th century BC and included in the Book of Documents, there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, which are described in detail in this book. The work focuses on the travels of the titular sage, Yu the Great, throughout each of the regions. Other texts, predominantly military, also discussed these cultural variations.

One of these texts was the Wuzi, written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on how to cope with the military threat posed by competing states. Wu Qi, the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were reflective of the terrain they live in. Of Qin, he said:

The nature of Qin's troops is to disperse so that each unit fights their own respective battles.

The people of Qin are ferocious by nature and their terrain is treacherous. The government's decrees are strict and impartial. The rewards and punishments are clear. Qin soldiers are brave and high in morale so that they are able to scatter and engage in individual combat. To strike at Qin's army, we must entice various groups with small benefits; the greedy will abandon their general to give chase. We can then capitalize on this opportunity by hunting each group down individually and then capturing the generals that have been isolated. Finally, we must array our army to ambush their commander.

According to Wu, the character of the populace is a consequence of the government, which in turn is a result of the ruggedness of the terrain. Wu expounds upon each of the states in this manner.

Following a visit to Qin in 264, the Confucian philosopher Xun Kuang observed that Qin society was "simple and unsophisticated", and its people held their officials in awe but were entirely devoid of Confucian literati. Despite being disliked by many Confucians of its time for "dangerously lacking in Confucian scholars", Confucian Xun Kuang wrote of the later Qin that "its topographical features are inherently advantageous", and that its "manifold natural resources gave it remarkable inherent strength. Its people were unspoiled and exceedingly deferential; its officers unfailingly respectful, earnest, reverential, loyal, and trustworthy; and its high officials public-spirited, intelligent, and assiduous in the execution of the duties of their position. Its courts and bureaus functioned without delays and with such smoothness that it was as if there were no government at all."

Rulers

List of Qin rulers based on the Records of the Grand Historian with corrections by Han Zhaoqi:

Astronomy

Qin is represented by two stars, Theta Capricorni ('first star of Qin') and 30 Capricorni ('second star of Qin'), in Twelve States asterism. Qin is also represented by the star Delta Serpentis in the Right Wall asterism, part of the Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellations).