Władysław I the Elbow-high

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Background

In 1138, the Kingdom of Poland, which had been growing in strength under the rule of the Piast dynasty, encountered an obstacle that impeded its development for nearly two hundred years. In the will of Prince Bolesław III Wrymouth (Bolesław III Krzywousty), Poland was divided into five provinces: Silesia, Mazovia with eastern Kuyavia, Greater Poland, the Sandomierz Region, and the Seniorate Province. The Seniorate Province initially comprised Kraków and western Lesser Poland, eastern Greater Poland including Gniezno and Kalisz, western Kuyavia, Łęczyca and Sieradz (maintained by the Dowager Duchess Salomea of Berg for her lifetime), and with Pomerelia as a fiefdom. To prevent his four sons from quarreling, Bolesław granted one province to each of them, while the Seniorate Province was to be given to the eldest brother on the grounds of primogeniture. This decision was meant to forestall dynastic feuds and prevent the disintegration of the kingdom. However, it proved inadequate, and began nearly two centuries of what it had sought to counteract: constant fighting and disorder. Władysław I succeeded in re-uniting most of these lands back into the kingdom of Poland.

Władysław I Łokietek was the oldest son of Casimir I of Kuyavia (Kazimierz I Kujawski) and his third wife Euphrosyne of Opole. He was only third in seniority to be Duke of Kuyavia, however, as he had two older half-brothers from Casimir's second marriage to Constance of Wrocław: Leszek II the Black (Leszek Czarny) and Ziemomysł of Kuyavia. He was named after his uncle, his mother's brother Vladislaus I of Opole.

In contemporary historical sources he was nicknamed Łokietek, a diminutive of the word łokieć which means "elbow" or "ell" (a medieval unit of measure similar to a cubit, as in "elbow-high"). However, the origin and the intended meaning of the nickname are not certain. The earliest explanation appeared in a 15th-century chronicle by Jan Długosz, who speculated that the nickname referred to the short stature of the king. In 2019, a team of archeologists endoscopically reached the interior of the king's tomb and found that the body was laid at the bottom of the burial chamber without a coffin. Subsequently, they were able to determine that Władysław I was 152-155 cm (5'0″-5'1″) tall, which meant that the king's height was just below that of an average person living in Europe during the Middle Ages. In the past, some historians hypothesised that the nickname Łokietek had nothing to do with the physical appearance of prince Władysław, but contemptuously described the actual size and political importance of his hereditary domain among the other principalities ruled by the members of the House of Piast, at least as compared to Łokietek's exaggerated ambitions. If this hypothesis is correct, Władysław Łokietek should be rather translated into English as Władysław the Petty. Historian Andrzej Nowak has speculated that Jan Długosz, who was born almost a century after Łokietek's death, may have misunderstood the political context and consequently misinterpreted the nickname

Prince in Kuyavia (1267–1288)

In 1267, when Władysław I Łokietek was seven years old, his father Casimir died. At this time, Leszek II the Black inherited Łęczyca (he had already been given Sieradz six years earlier), Ziemomysł gained Inowrocław, and Brześć Kujawski and Dobrzyń were held in regency by Euphrosyne on behalf of Władysław and his younger brothers Casimir II and Siemowit. After the death of his father, Władysław was sent to Kraków to the court of his relative, Bolesław V the Chaste (1st cousin once removed). In 1273, Władysław participated in the arbitration by Bolesław the Pious, duke of Greater Poland, to reconcile him and his mother Euphrosyne with the Teutonic Knights. Władysław took responsibility for governing these territories in 1275, but they were actually held in a "niedzial" (collective property of the family community) with his two younger brothers.

In October 1277, lands destined for his younger brother Casimir II were invaded by Lithuanians, who, after the abduction of prisoners and seizure of loot, freely returned home. This was a result of being the proteges of Bolesław V the Chaste, who at this time was in the opposite political camp (proczeskim) from Konrad II, Duke of Masovia, through whose land the Lithuanian invasion passed. Two years later, in 1279, Władysław I Łokietek was considered to be one of the contenders to succeed in Lesser Poland after the death of Bolesław V the Chaste, according to the Hypatian Codex. However, the nobility abided by Boleslaw's will, which had designated Władysław's elder half-brother Leszek II the Black as his heir.

After Leszek II the Black's acquisition of power in Kraków and Sandomierz in 1279, Władysław, along with his younger brothers, recognized Leszek's sovereignty. This resulted in, among other things, the adoption of a coat of arms by all of the sons of Casimir I Kujawski: half-lion, half-eagle, and afterwards Władysław always served as an ally to his older half-brother. In 1280, Władysław militarily helped Leszek's ally, the Masovian Prince Bolesław II, in a battle with Bolesław's brother, Konrad II, and during the expedition won the castle of Jazdów. It is also possible that at a meeting between Leszek II the Black and Przemysł II, Duke of Greater Poland, in Sieradz in February 1284, the marriage of Władysław to Jadwiga, a cousin of Przemysł, was discussed. The following year, in August, Władysław was present, along with Przemysl II and Ziemomysł of Kuyavia, when finalising the reform of the Sulejów monastery, i.e., taking in the monks from the Wąchock monastic buildings. After this event, Władysław again appeared in Masovia, where he supported Bolesław II in combat with Konrad II, probably on behalf of Leszek II the Black. In retaliation for this action, Konrad II once again let the Lithuanian army pass through his land, which in 1287 besieged Dobrzyń.

Duke of Sandomierz and war with Wenceslaus II (1289–1292)

After the Battle of Siewierz, Bolesław II of Masovia resigned from applying for the Seniorate Province for unknown reasons, and so Władysław I Łokietek began to style himself the Duke of Kraków and Sandomierz. He occupied the capital of Lesser Poland (but without Wawel Castle), yet despite initial victories in the battles of Skała and Święcica, Władysław could not make it permanent. Soon Kraków was acquired by Henry Probus, and Władysław had to escape the city with the help of the Franciscans. In the second half of 1289, the Kujavian prince managed to consolidate his rule in the Duchy of Sandomierz. This resulted in a division of Lesser Poland back into the two distinct principalities (Kraków and Sandomierz), as they had been ruled by the same duke since Bolesław V the Chaste became High Duke in 1243.

On 23 June 1290, Henry Probus died, and Przemysł II, Duke of Greater Poland, assumed the throne of Kraków. It is not known exactly how the relationship was between Przemysł II and Władysław I Łokietek, although it is very likely that they were friendly, as the division took place without bloodshed and may have been the result of a settlement between the princes. It is possible, however, that these relations could have been cool, and perhaps even hostile. Przemysł II mastered Wawel Castle without problems, but from the beginning he faced considerable internal opposition from within the principality of Kraków – some of whom supported Władysław I Łokietek, while others supported Wenceslaus II of Bohemia – and by mid-September 1290 Przemysł II left Kraków to return to Greater Poland. Meanwhile, in order to further increase his contemporary significance, Władysław gave his niece Fenenna (daughter of his half-brother Ziemomysł) in marriage to Andrew III, the Hungarian king of the Arpad dynasty.

Przemysł II finally gave up power over Kraków in mid-January of the following year (1291), and the principality then accepted the Czech monarch Wenceslaus II as its sovereign. Władysław decided to fight for Lesser Poland with the help of Hungarian troops granted to him by Andrew III. In 1292, Bohemian troops, through numerical superiority and with support from Silesian princes and the Margrave of Brandenburg, drove Władysław the Short first from Sandomierz, and in September of that same year, surrounded him in a fortified Sieradz. The siege was soon successful, and Władysław and his brother Casimir II found themselves in captivity. On 9 October 1292 an agreement was signed under which Władysław and Casimir II were forced to renounce claims to Lesser Poland and to make fealty to the Czech ruler, in return for which they remained on their Kuyavian leases.

Initial efforts in Greater Poland (1296–1298)

For wealthy Greater Poland, it became evident that the throne of Przemysł II deserved his closest ally, Prince Władysław of Kuyavia. The fact that Władysław I Łokietek was known to dislike the Germans was not irrelevant, as they were generally regarded as the perpetrators of the murder of Przemsył II. However, there was a testament of Przemysł II, written about 1290, recognising Henry III of Głogów as his heir. Neither party wanted bloody battles, and so an arrangement was made on 10 March 1296 in Krzywiń in which Władysław agreed to give Henry III the part of Greater Poland west and south of the rivers Obra and Warta up to the mouth of the Noteć. Władysław also established his successor in the event he died without a male heir: Henry IV the Faithful, Henry III's eldest son. Also, regardless of the future birth of any sons of his own, Władysław agreed to give the duchy of Poznań to Henry IV Faithful when he reached adulthood.

The division of Greater Poland that was agreed upon in Krzywiń did not address all of the contentious issues, especially in light of the fact that male heirs of Władysław I Łokietek soon came into the world. The governments of Władysław I Łokietek in his part of Greater Poland were not successful because banditry was spreading there and internal opposition grew stronger, headed by Andrzej Zaremba, the bishop of Poznań. It was suspected, though denied by some historians, that Bishop Zaremba placed a curse of the church on Władysław. In addition, Archbishop Jakub Świnka, seeing that the Duke of Kuyavia was having problems with proper governance, began distancing himself from his earlier protege. In 1298, a meeting between the opposition from Greater Poland and Henry III of Głogów occurred in Kościan to conclude an agreement under which, in return for renewed offices for the opposition in a future reunited duchy, they would support Henry's candidacy for the throne of Greater Poland.

Recovery of Kuyavia, Lesser Poland, and Gdańsk Pomerania (1304–1306)

Władysław I Łokietek returned to Lesser Poland in 1304 with an army of his supporters, which, according to the 15th-century historian Jan Długosz, consisted of more peasants than knights. He settled in Sandomierz with the help of the Hungarian magnate Amadeus Aba. Later that same year, he was able to master the castles in Wiślica and Lelów. Success for the indomitable prince would have been short-lived, if not for several favorable circumstances. On 21 June 1305, Wenceslaus II, the Czech and Polish king, died unexpectedly and his inheritance passed to his only son, Wenceslaus III. Władysław took advantage of the situation perfectly, mastering the duchies of Sandomierz, Sieradz-Łęczyca, and Brześć Kujawski by the end of the year. The declining Czech government tried to support Wenceslaus III by organising an expedition against Władysław. Again, luck favoured Władysław, as on 4 August 1306, Wenceslaus III was murdered in Olomouc in Moravia, and the Kingdom of Bohemia was without a monarch and in the heat of a civil war.

The death of the last Přemyslid on the Bohemian throne resulted in a rally of knights in Kraków, which led to an official invitation to Władysław I Łokietek to take power. There was a festive entrance to the capital of Lesser Poland on 1 September 1306, and this has been linked with the issuance of a privilege for the city and for the current leading advocate of Czech rule, Jan Muskata, the bishop of Kraków.

Another goal of Władysław I Łokietek was to regain the inheritance of Przemysł II: Greater Poland and Pomerelia (Gdańsk Pomerania). This unification campaign, however, encountered considerable difficulties. In Greater Poland, Władysław managed to only take control of the Kuyavia-border towns of Konin, Koło, and Nakło, because the rest of the duchy had accepted the rule of his old enemy Henry III of Głogów (except Wielun, which was occupied by prince Bolko I of Opole). Pomerelia, however, became subordinate to the rule of Władysław I Łokietek as a result of an expedition at the end of 1306, accepting tribute from representatives of Pomeranian society in Byszewo. Control over this remote area had to be transferred to governors. Władysław no longer trusted the Pomeranian Swienca family, so despite leaving Peter Swienca, the senior family member, as voivode, the role of governor was given to his two nephews (the sons of Ziemomysł). Przemysł became governor of Świecie and Casimir III took Gdańsk and Tczew.

Annexation of Pomerelia by the Teutonic Knights (1307–1309)

Meanwhile, Gerward, the bishop of Kuyavia (Włocławek), appeared against the Peter Swienca family and demanded that they return episcopal income stolen from him when Peter was governor for the Czech Kingdom. Peter lost the arbitration process, which ordered him to return to the Bishop the enormous amount of 2,000 grzywnas. Despite a partial guarantee by Władysław the Short, the Swienca family was unable to pay such a sum; therefore, on 17 July 1307 they changed their allegiance from Władysław to Waldemar, Margrave of Brandenburg, and received from him in fief the towns of Darłowo, Polanowo, Sławno, Tuchola, and Nowe, and received in perpetuity the Land of Slupsk. In August 1307, Waldemar attacked Pomerelia. Resistance to the invaders on behalf of Władysław I Łokietek came from Bogusz, a Pomerelian judge who entrenched himself in the city of Gdańsk. It soon became clear, however, that his forces could not cope with the aggressors.

On the advice of the German prior of the Dominican Order in Gdańsk, Władysław I Łokietek decided to bring the Teutonic Order in to help. At first, it seemed that all went well, as the knights under Günther von Schwarzburg, the commander of Chełmno, successfully drove the Brandenburgs from Gdańsk and then moved on to Tczew. However, the Prussian Grand Master did not listen to Prince Casimir, Władysław's governor residing in Tczew, and without a struggle took the city. Then the Knights took Nowe and in 1308, completed the campaign. Only Świecie remained in the hands of Władysław I Łokietek. In April 1309, in Kuyavia, there was a meeting between Władysław I Łokietek and the Prussian Grand Master about the seizure of Pomerelia, at which the Teutonic Order issued to the Prince an absurd bill for the relief of Gdańsk, and then offered to purchase the territory. Both proposals were rejected by Wladyslaw. Consequently, in July 1309, the Teutonic Knights began the siege of Świecie. The garrison surrendered the city only in September. In order to legitimize their conduct, the Knights purchased in September a questionable right to the district from Brandenburg. The annexation of Pomerelia enabled the Grand Master to finally transfer their capital from Venice to Malbork.

Coping with internal opposition – Jan Muskata and the rebellion of Mayor Albert (1308–1312)

The reason that Władysław I Łokietek could not be involved directly in Pomerelian affairs was the unstable situation in Lesser Poland. The source of the unrest was Jan Muskata, the bishop of Kraków and a former follower of Wenceslaus II. Muskata began to sow discord against Władysław soon after he gained the throne of Kraków by trying to establish contacts with his enemies Bolko I of Opole and Henry III of Głogów. To help the Prince of Kraków came the venerable archbishop of Gniezno, Jakub Świnka. On 14 June 1308, Świnka deprived Muskata of his bishopric for abuse of power. Using judgment, Władysław imprisoned the bishop for only half a year and then forced him to leave the boundaries of the principality. Muskata did not return to Kraków until 1317.

In 1311, Władysław I Łokietek survived another crisis of his reign. This time the threat came from within Kraków, where the local German nobility said that they now supported and would obey John of Bohemia, the new king of Bohemia. The reason for this state of affairs was the excessive (in their opinion) tax burden caused by the policy of unification of the Polish lands and the economic crisis associated with the loss of Pomerelia. At the head of the revolt was Albert, the mayor of Kraków, who called to the city Duke Bolko I of Opole. The rebels managed to control Kraków and gain the support of several other cities in Lesser Poland, but Wawel was saved by troops loyal to Władysław, which made the chances of a successful rebellion questionable. The situation had not changed when the Duke of Opole arrived in April 1312. Historians debate whether Bolko I came to Kraków for his own purposes, or rather as a governor on behalf of the new Czech king, John of Bohemia, who was also using the title of King of Poland. However, John could not support this militant rebellion as a result of the problems he faced in Moravia with his own rebels. In any case, attempts to capture Wawel Castle failed, and strengthened by Hungarian support, Władysław the Short mastered the rebellion in Sandomierz and forced Bolko I of Opole to leave Kraków in June 1312. Upon returning to Opole, Bolko kidnapped Mayor Albert and, for unknown reasons, had him imprisoned (perhaps to recover by ransom the costs incurred in connection with the trip to Kraków). After ending the rebellion, Władysław proceeded to punish the rebels. The penalties were severe; some councilors were hanged and their property confiscated, and the city of Kraków itself lost some of its privileges (e.g., hereditary headmen). Soon after the rebellion, Latin was introduced to the books of the city rather than German.

Coronation (1315–1320)

Around that time, Władysław I Łokietek also began efforts to obtain papal consent for a royal coronation. This plan was actively supported by the Polish church, led by Borzysław I, the archbishop of Gniezno (the successor of Jakub Swinka, who died in 1314), and Gerward, the bishop of Kuyavia (Włocławek). The decision about the coronation was ultimately made during two rallies of nobles and knights; the first was held from 20 to 23 June 1318 in Sulejow, where a special supplication was prepared with a request to the Pope, and the second on 29 June in Pyzdry. Bishop Gerward was sent to Avignon with the documents. The successful arrangement featured a replacement method of calculating the papal pence on terms favorable for the papacy.

Consent was given by Pope John XXII on 20 August 1319, though not directly due to the opposition of King John of Bohemia, who also claimed the crown of Poland. The Pope was looking for a way to preserve the rights of Władysław and Poland without infringing on those of John and Bohemia, and found that the Luxembourg claims (despite their tenuous legal basis) referred to Greater Poland, the "kingdom" of Przemysł II. As such, Kraków was chosen for the coronation instead of Gniezno, in that a coronation in Kraków would not violate the rights of John of Bohemia. On 20 January 1320 in the Wawel Cathedral, Janisław, the archbishop of Gniezno (succeeding Borzysław I), crowned Władysław as King of Poland. Placing the rite of Polish coronation in Kraków, however, caused John to question its legality. In light of John of Bohemia's use of the title King of Poland, in the international arena, Władysław I Łokietek was considered the King of Kraków, and not of the whole country.

The year 1320 was important for the politics of Władysław I Łokietek for other reasons. On 14 April 1320 in Inowrocław, and then in Brześć Kujavia, he began deliberations with the papal court to judge the case of the annexation of Gdańsk Pomerania by the Teutonic Knights. After hearing twenty-five witnesses for the Polish side, the judges released a decision favorable to the King on 9 February 1321. According to that decision, the Teutonic Order had to return Pomerania to Poland, pay 30,000 grzywnas in compensation for the collection of income from Pomerania, and pay for the cost of the process. The Teutonic Knights did not expect that such a judgment would be surrendered and filed an appeal. Under the influence of the actions of the procurator of the Teutonic Order in the Papal Curia, the Pope did not approve of the judgment of Inowrocław and the case was suspended. This gave the Holy See the opportunity to use the conflict for their own purposes in the subsequent years.

The war with the Teutonic Knights in Kuyavia and the Battle of Płowce (1330–1332)

In 1330, the Teutonic Knights resumed hostilities. Crusaders successfully plundered cities in Kuyavia and Greater Poland: Radziejów, Bydgoszcz, and Nakło. Only by a daring crossing of the Vistula River by Władysław and an intrusion into Chełmno with the help of Lithuanians were the allies successful in besieging the castle of Kowalewo Pomorskie in September. Then, under the besieged castle of the Teutonic Knights in Lipienek, the king agreed to a seven-month truce on 18 October 1330. Unfortunately, during this trip, the alliance with the Duke of Lithuania was compromised as a result of a personal quarrel between Władysław and Gediminas.

In 1331, there was another armed expedition by the Teutonic Knights into Polish lands. This time, according to the action plan of the Order, the troops under the command of Dietrich von Altenburg were to coordinate with the expedition of King John of Bohemia. The two armies were to meet under the walls of Kalisz. In the middle of the year, Teutonic troops carrying out a reconnaissance effort entered Kuyavia and Greater Poland, including taking Pyzdry (where there was a skirmish with the Polish troops) and Gniezno. The main expedition was organized in September 1331. While the Knights went to meet at Kalisz as agreed, upon arrival, there were no Czech troops present. John of Bohemia had stopped in Silesia, where he effectively stopped the resistance of Bolko II of Świdnica and resolved the unsettled case of Głogów after the death of Duke Przemko II.

Unable to deliver a decisive blow to Władysław I Łokietek, the Knights decided to finally master Kuyavia. The night of 23–24 September saw the first major unresolved clash near Konin. Three days later, in the morning, Polish troops numbering about 5,000 and led personally by King Władysław and his son Prince Casimir encountered the rear guard of the Teutonic Knights near Radziejów. Taking advantage of the surprise, the Poles defeated the enemy unit and took Dietrich von Altenburg, the commander of the expedition, as a prisoner. In the afternoon, however, there was another clash near the village of Płowce. The battle was not settled because of the withdrawal of some Polish troops with Prince Casimir, and in the confusion, the Teutonic commander escaped from captivity. Though inconclusive, the Battle of Płowce was important psychologically for the Poles as it convinced them that the Knights were not insurmountable.

Soon after these events, peace negotiations were initiated in Inowrocław. However, this time it was not possible for Władysław to reach an agreement with the Teutonic Knights. In 1332, the Knights organized a big military expedition under the command of Otto von Luteberg. This time, the Polish forces were too thin to face the resistance of the Knights in the open field. On 20 April, after a nearly two-week siege, Brześć, the capital of Kuyavia, fell. Soon, the Teutonic Knights were also in the other main strongholds of the province – Inowrocław and Gniewkowo, the latter of which was destroyed on the orders of the prince of the land, Casimir III of Gniewkowo.

The loss of Kuyavia, which was his patrimony, was certainly very painful for Władysław, although in the same year, taking advantage of the death of Przemko II of Głogów, he took Zbąszyń in Greater Poland by the river Obra, which had been held by the dukes of Głogow.

Władysław I the Elbow-high

Władysław I the Elbow-high

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Life

Background

Prince in Kuyavia (1267–1288)

Death of Leszek II the Black and the struggle for control of Kraków (1288–1289)

Duke of Sandomierz and war with Wenceslaus II (1289–1292)

Collaboration with Przemysł II (1293–1296)

Marriage

Initial efforts in Greater Poland (1296–1298)

Flight from the country (1299–1304)

Recovery of Kuyavia, Lesser Poland, and Gdańsk Pomerania (1304–1306)

Annexation of Pomerelia by the Teutonic Knights (1307–1309)

Coping with internal opposition – Jan Muskata and the rebellion of Mayor Albert (1308–1312)

Mastering Greater Poland (1309–1315)

Coronation (1315–1320)

Alliances (1320)

Expedition to Rus' and the war with Brandenburg (1323–1326)

Failed attempt to master Mazovia (1327–1328)

Loss of Dobrzyń (1329)

The war with the Teutonic Knights in Kuyavia and the Battle of Płowce (1330–1332)

Death

Legacy and assessment of the ruler

Royal titles

Family

In popular culture

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